The American interlude

By the end of the nineteenth century, Filipino insurgents in Luzon and Visayas had been revolting against Spanish rule for a long period, fighting for independence. When the United States became involved in a war with Spain over Cuba in 1898, Filipinos and Americans joined forces to fight the Spaniards in Luzon. The Filipinos were of the understanding that their alliance would involve American support for the Philippines' independence. However, the Americans deferred putting a commitment of support in writing. A growing suspicion about the Americans' intentions arose among the Filipino insurgents. In the meantime the Americans were secretly negotiating with the Spanish defenders of Manila. They agreed upon an arrangement by which the Spaniards would put up a show of resistance and surrender on a prearranged signal. The Americans on their part would neither shell Manila, nor allow the Filipino insurgents to take part in the assault. The mock battle was staged on August 13, 1898. Manila fell within hours, and Spanish rule had come to an end. The agreement marked a shift in the positions. Spaniards and Americans were now in a partnership that excluded the Filipinos. The Filipinos on their side had proclaimed a declaration of independence on June 12, 1898, but now they understood that the Americans had come to stay.  Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, as a result of an American incentive. Although the Filipino leader Aquinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901, resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines until 1903.

        The Moros, suspicious of both Christian Filipinos and Americans, stayed out of the American-Filipino war. The "Bates Treaty", signed in August 1899 by General Bates, on behalf of the United States, and by the Sultan of Sulu, Jamul-ul Kiram II, on behalf of the Moros, assured the Moros' autonomy in return for submission to the United States. However, as soon as the war was over, the American Governor established the Moro Province, which comprised the central and southern part of Mindanao, Zamboanga peninsula, and the Sulu Archipelago. Now that the Americans had their hands free in the north, they disregarded the "Bates Treaty" under the pretext of the still ongoing slave trade among the Moros. A military presence was established, aimed to secure the new policy: slavery was outlawed, schools that taught a non-Moslem curriculum were established, and local governments that challenged the traditional leaders (datûs) were organized. The American policy was to maintain a friendly and peaceful atmosphere in the region, though they launched immediate military expeditions in response to what they considered deceptive and hostile acts. The culprits had to be found and punished. There were bloody encounters, especially with the Moros on Jolo (Sulu) and around the Lanao Lake north of Cotabato. Cotabato itself remained peaceful, with one exception in 1903. Datû Ali confronted the Americans with a force of 15 000 men, but they were unable to withstand the Krag rifle. Ali was defeated and killed. Subsequent to the defeat, the datûs of Cotabato made friends with General Pershing, the Governor of the Moro Province. Finally, in 1911 a general prohibition of arms was declared. All kinds of arms, even swords, were required to be turned over to the American administration. A military operation completed the disarmament of the Moros in 1912. The Americans had gained control over the entire southern Archipelago, that is, Mindanao and the Sulu islands.

The Christian Filipinos' take-over of Mindanao

From the outset, the strategy of some American officials in the Philippines was to keep Mindanao as American property, and, once under control, suitable land would be allotted to American plantation companies. However, the concept became politically untenable due to the homely political opposition's firm critique of the entire American "adventure" in the Philippines. A powerful anti-imperialist movement urged that the island group be turned over to the Filipinos. As a result a civil Filipino administration was soon implemented. Nonetheless, the Moro Province remained outside this administration. Christian Filipinos, however, refused to accept this situation and impelled the American Governor to turn over the Moro province. They took over in 1913, in spite of the Moros' strong objections. What the combined forces of the Spaniards and the Christian Filipinos had never been able to achieve, had now become a reality, and, incidentally, has remained a source of animosity ever since.

        As early as 1913, the five first resettlement programs from the densely populated Visayas were launched, all of them in the Cotabato Province. The resettlement programs had three main objectives: 1) to resolve the problems related to land shortage in the Visayas and Luzon; 2) to keep the Moros and pagans under control and thus avoid a possible separation of Mindanao; and 3) to forestall American interests in plantation development. The settlers were allowed to enter the Cotabato Basin and start their new life as farmers on land that was allotted to them. They were gathered in small mixed Christian-Moslem townships under the protection of the Constabulary.

        The colonization did not really take off until 1935, because the island was without adequate infrastructure. The road construction program for Mindanao progressed rapidly during the years 1936 to 1941, as did arrangements in general for the pioneer settlers in order to advance the export of their surplus production. This brought about an immediate increase in immigration to the island. Actually, only a minor part of the total population increase on Mindanao was due to the official resettlement programs themselves. Most of the settlers were either immigrants outside the official resettlement programs or second and third generation settlers. Nonetheless, the programs were of paramount importance as a door-opener for other immigrants to "the Land of Promises". During the Japanese occupation of Mindanao (1942-1944), the flow of settlers from Luzon and the Visayas ceased temporarily, only to recommence with ever-increasing impetus after World War Two, notably to the frontier areas; among them was Cotabato.

        The attached chart may serve to illustrate Cotabato’s population growth over time. We notice that the real take-off started some time between 1939 and 1948. Within a few decades the indigenous population of Mindanao had become totally outnumbered as a result of the accelerating migrations. The Province of Cotabato had, according to the American census in 1903, a population of 125 875, of which 2 313 were so-called "civilized".  Hence, 98.2% of the population belonged to what was classified as "wilds". Census figures for the "civilized-wild" dichotomy are not available for later censuses. However, the enumeration by mother tongue may serve to convey the same relation. By 1990 the "wilds" of South Cotabato, now called cultural minorities, i.e. the various Moslem and Lumad groups, comprised only 14.6% of the population. In 1903 hardly any of those classified as civilized lived in the area of Cotabato which has now become South Cotabato.

The colonization of the Koronadal and the Alah Valley

South Cotabato was settled from the sea side. The first pioneer settlers settled along the coast. In 1914 a ship with Ilocanos arrived and founded Glan at the outlet of the Sarangani Bay. A few years later, in 1920 and in 1921, a ship loaded with Ilocanos landed in Kiamba at the Celebes Sea. In February 1937 General Santos arrived in the town of Dediangas at the Sarangani Bay, now named after him. He brought settlers from Luzon, and, it goes without saying, the Constabulary to protect his entourage (although this is not mentioned). Shortly afterwards, in June 1939, the Koronadal Valley was officially opened for settlement by virtue of the Commonwealth Act No. 441. This opened the interior of South Cotabato for colonization. The first road through the Koronadal Valley, going from Dediangas at Sarangani Bay to Takurong near Buluan Lake, was finished by 1940. The town of Marbel, now officially called Koronadal, was founded on January 10, 1940 and became the fastest growing town in the valley. Of course, the immigrating settlers were not seeking to cultivate the steep land on the mountain slopes. They were allotted fertile soil in the bottom of the valley. By 1941 land in Marbel and its barangays was becoming short of land. Hence, the National Land Settlement Administration decided to open the Alah Valley across the Roxas Matulas Range for settlement.

        The rapid colonization of the Koronadal and Alah Valley may be illustrated with the subdivision of existing municipalities to form new ones. In 1949 Dediangas (now General Santos City) at the head of Sarangani Bay was separated from Buayan. In 1953 Tupi (Koronadal Valley) was separated from Koronadal, Norala (Lower Alah Valley) from Datu-Piang (Cotabato Basin), and Banga (Upper Alah Valley) from Koronadal and Datu-Piang. In 1957 Isulan (Lower Alah Valley) was separated from Norala and Datu-Piang, and Polomolok was separated from Tupi and Dediangas. In 1961, Surallah (Upper Alah Valley) was separated from Banga. In 1974 the Municipality of Tboli (Head of the Alah Valley) was created by separation from Surallah, Banga, Tupi, Polomolok, and the coastal municipalities Maasim, Kiamba, and Maitum which earlier comprised large areas on the other side of the watershed.

        At the time when Tboli was separated out as a municipality of its own, Lake Sebu remained a barangay within the Municipality of Surallah. Migration into the area continued, especially after the flat and fertile land around the lakes on the Sbú plateau had become accessible by truck in 1976. Finally, in 1982, the Municipality of Lake Sebu was created by virtue of Batas Pambansa Blg. 249. The decree does not contain any of the reasoning behind the further division of the area, nor does the Socio-Economic Profile of Lake Sebu. However, we can speculate that there were two main reasons. Lake Sebu is far from the town of Surallah, and many Visayans had settled around the lakes. The barangay had itself become a center. The former Municipality of Tboli ceded almost half of its area, while Surallah had to cede yet another, though smaller, area.

        The population in upper Alah Valley is still increasing, though we do not observe a steady inflow of migrants anymore. To describe the state of land ownership right now in the flat and fertile parts of the Alah Valley, as well as the surrounding mountain slopes, the Socio-Economic Profile of Surallah can be cited: "Settlers coming from Luzon and Visayas ... were afforded the chance to demonstrate their ability under the settlement programs ... The original inhabitants of the area are the Tagabilis [Tbolis], a mountain tribe people who moved inward after the arrival of the Christian settlers from Luzon and Visayas. Ilongo speaking Visayans comprised the largest majority of inhabitants of which the Tagabilis has been reduced into a very scant minority". Today the Tbolis have really become a hill tribe, pushed up onto the mountain slopes. They are still losing their land, mostly by it being mortgaged to settlers under unfavorable conditions. Many of them are incapable of comprehending the ruinous consequences the mortgaging practice will have in the long run. They seldom manage to redeem their land. Continuation...

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